AGGRESSION
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
The sociobiology view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that people's capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is too much variation among people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbal aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting of aggressive impulses as "catharsis." Catharsis is theorized to be a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression later on.
The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.
Paragraph 2: The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
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1. According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
○Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
○Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
○Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
○Animals who lack a hypothalamus display few aggressive tendencies.
Paragraph 3: An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
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2. According to Darwin's theory of evolution, members of a species are forced to struggle for survival because
○Not all individuals are skilled in finding food
○Individuals try to defend their young against attackers
○Many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction
○Individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood
Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
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3. The word inevitable in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Unavoidable
○Regrettable
○Controllable
○Unsuitable
4. The word gratify in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Identify
○Modify
○Satisfy
○Simplify
5. The word they in the passage refers to
○Future explosions
○Pent-up aggressive impulses
○Outlets
○Indirect ways
6. According to paragraph 5, Freud believed that children experience conflict between a desire to vent aggression on their parents and
○A frustration that their parents do not give them everything they want
○A fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them
○A desire to take care of their parents
○A desire to vent aggression on other family members
7. Freud describes people as steam engines in order to make the point that people
○Deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger
○Usually release aggression in explosive ways
○Must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up
○Typically lose their aggression if they do not express it
Paragraph 7: The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
Paragraph 8: One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not.
○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently.
○People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime.
○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime.
9. According to the cognitive approach described in paragraphs 7 and 8, all of the following may influence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a person's
○Moral values
○Previous experiences with aggression
○Instinct to avoid aggression
○B(yǎng)eliefs about other people's intentions
10. The word distort in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Mistrust
○Misinterpret
○Criticize
○Resent
Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." ■By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. ■Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
11. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression.
Where would the sentence best fit?
12. Directions: Complete the table below by matching five of the six answer choices with the approach to aggression that they exemplify. This question is worth 3 points.
Approach to Understanding Aggression Associated Claims
Biological approach
●
Psychodynamic approach
●
●
Cognitive approach
●
●
Answer choices
1. Aggressive impulses toward people are sometimes expressed in indirect ways.
2. Aggressiveness is often useful for individuals in the struggle for survival.
3. Aggressive behavior may involve a misunderstanding of other people's intentions.
4. The need to express aggressive impulses declines with age.
5. Acting aggressively is the result of a choice influenced by a person's values and beliefs.
6. Repressing aggressive impulses can result in aggressive behavior.
參考答案:
1. ○ 3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 2. The correct answer is choice 3. The question asks specifically for "evidence that indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus." Answer choices 1 and 2 are contradicted by the paragraph. Choice 2 is incorrect because, while the paragraph states that "electrical stimulation" triggers aggressive behavior in many animals, this is not "evidence" in itself, but merely support for the more general statement in choice 3 that increased hypothalamus activity, in general, is related to aggression.
以上內容為OG給出的解釋，但本人認為此題無正確選項。因為C選項中的increased activity為原文未提及內容，因此C項不正確。
B選項中artificial錯誤，因為我們不能從原文當中的電刺激海馬體導致動物侵略性推出人工的刺激海馬體能導致動物侵略性，這個是一個以偏概全的結論，因此建議將B選項中的artificial改為electrical，則B選項為正確選項。
2. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction." This answer choice is essentially a paraphrase of paragraph 3, sentence 4: "Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood." Choices 1 and 2 are not mentioned at all. Choice 4 may be true, but it is not stated in the passage as a fact; an inference is needed to support it.
3. ○1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is inevitable. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, unavoidable. If something is inevitable, that means that it will occur no matter what; in other words, it is unavoidable.
4. ○3
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is gratify. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "satisfy." If a person's desires are gratified, those desires are fulfilled. Thus the person is satisfied.
5. ○2
This is a Reference question. The word being tested is they. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "pent-up aggressive impulses." This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word the?) here refers to something that "may be expressed toward strangers later in life." This is the "outlet" toward which the "aggressive impulses" mentioned may be directed.
6. ○2
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 2, "a fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them." The question asks what causes the conflict between the desire to vent aggression and children's fears. The answer is found in paragraph 5 in the sentence that reads, "Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses." Answer choice 2 is the only choice that correctly identifies the cause of the conflict created by repressing aggression in children.
7. ○3
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. If asks you why the author mentions that Freud described people as "steam engines" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up.'' Steam engines will explode if their steam builds up The same is true of people, as choice 3 indicates. The other choices are not necessarily true of both people and steam engines, so they are incorrect.
8. ○2
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
The correct answer is choice 2. It contains all of the essential information in the highlighted sentence. The highlighted sentence compares people who believe particular acts of aggression are necessary and those who don't, in terms of their relative likelihood to act aggressively under certain conditions. This is precisely what choice 2 says: "People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently." It compares the behavior of one type of person to that of another type of person. Nothing essential has been left out, and the meaning has not been changed. Choice 1 changes the meaning of the sentence; it says categorically that "those (people) who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not (act aggressively)." The highlighted sentence merely says that such people are "less likely" to act aggressively, not that they never will; this changes the meaning. Choice 3 says, "People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime." This is incorrect because it leaves out critical information: it does not mention people who do believe aggression is necessary. This choice does not make the same comparison as the highlighted sentence. Choice 4, "People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime," also changes the meaning of the sentence by leaving out essential information. In this choice, no mention is made of people who do not believe aggression is necessary. This choice does not make the same comparison as the highlighted sentence.
9. ○3
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraphs 7 and 8. Choice 3 is the correct answer. Choice 1, "moral values," is explicitly mentioned as one of the influences on aggressive behavior; so it is incorrect. Choices 2 (“previous experiences”) and 4 sentence in paragraph8 says, “People decide whether they will act aggressively of not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people’s motives.” Choice 3, the “instinct to avoid aggression,” is not mentioned, so it is the correct answer here.
10. ○2
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is distort . It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "misinterpret." To distort other people's motives is to twist them, or view them incorrectly and thereby not understand them properly. Something that is not understood properly is misinterpreted.
11. ○2
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 5 that represent the possible answer choices here.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engines." ■ By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. ■ Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
The sentence provided, "According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression," is best inserted at square 2. Square 2 is correct because the sentence being inserted is a connective sentence, connecting the idea of childhood repression in the preceding sentence to the "Freudian perspective" in the sentence that follows. The use of the word however in this sentence indicates that an idea already introduced (the repression of children's aggressive impulses) is being modified. Here, the inserted sentence tells us that Freud thought that even though these impulses are repressed, they continue to exist. This serves as a connection to the next sentence and the "Freudian perspective." Inserting the sentence at square 1 would place the modification ("however, impulses . . . continue to exist") before the idea that it modifies (repression of impulses). This makes no logical sense. Inserting the sentence at square 3 would move the modifying sentence away from its logical position immediately following the idea that it modifies (repression of impulses). Placing the insert sentence at square 4 moves the sentence farther from its logical antecedent and has no connection to the sentence that follows it.
12.○2 1 6 3 5
參考譯文：
動物攻擊異己時，會表現(xiàn)出非常明顯的侵略性行為。心理學家們采用了數(shù)種方法來分析人類的侵略性行為。
生物學方法。侵略性行為似乎與許多生物結構和化學物質有關。如大腦中的下丘腦。很多動物在受到特定刺激時會表現(xiàn)出本能的侵略反應。下丘腦似乎與動物的這種本能反應有關：對許多動物的下丘腦中部分區(qū)域進行電激，會引發(fā)一些它們的常見侵略性行為。然而，人類的大腦要復雜的多，大腦的其他結構似乎可以抑制這種本性。
社會生物學是生物學方法的一個分支，該理論認為侵略性對于人類而言是天生并且必要的。社會生物學認為，包括侵略性行為在內的許多社會行為都是由遺傳決定的。根據達爾文的進化論，他認為，個體存在的數(shù)量遠遠超過那些可以找到食物并且活到成年的個體數(shù)量，個體之間開始進行生存競爭，那些擁有競爭優(yōu)勢的個體更容易存活，并且會將它們有利于生存競爭的基因遺傳給下一代。大部分物種所具有的競爭優(yōu)勢特質之一就是好斗性。擁有侵略性特質的個體更容易存活和繁殖，因此，與侵略性行為相關的各種基因遺傳給下一代的可能性更大。
該理論在眾多方面遭到質疑。其一，人類擁有其他物種不具備的能力，這種并非侵略性質的能力才是人類生存下來的主要原因。其二，人類身上存在太多的變數(shù)，因此，我們無法相信人類會被侵略性沖動主導或者支配。
精神動力學方法。理論家們依據精神動力學方法認為，內在矛盾是理解人類包括侵略性行為在內的所有行為的關鍵所在。比如，弗洛伊德認為，日常生活中的挫敗感不可避免地導致人類產生侵略性沖動。孩子們時常想對包括他們父母在內的其他人發(fā)泄侵略性沖動的情感，因為即使是最周全的父母也無法做到立即滿足孩子的所有要求。然而，孩們又會因為害怕受到父母的處罰，擔心失去父母的愛而壓制了內心大部分的侵略性沖動。從某種意義上說，弗洛伊德的觀點是將人類視為“蒸汽機”，通過內部壓制而不是釋放“蒸汽”，進而為今后的爆發(fā)埋下伏筆。積聚起來的的侵略性沖動需要被釋放出來。孩子們會間接對他們的父母發(fā)泄，比如毀壞家具，或在以后的生活中對陌生人發(fā)泄。
根據精神動力學理論可知，避免有害侵略的最好方法是提倡危害較小的侵略方式。用蒸汽機打個比方吧，言語性的侵略可以釋放些許帶有侵略性質的蒸汽。比如，你可以為自已最喜歡的體育團隊吶喊助威。精神分析學家是利用精神動力學方法分析的理療師，他們將侵略性沖動的發(fā)泄看成是“精神發(fā)泄”。理論證明精神發(fā)泄是一種安全的方式。但研究發(fā)現(xiàn)精神發(fā)泄的有用性和無用性很混亂。有的研究表明精神發(fā)泄可以緩解緊張情緒并且有助于降低以后侵略性行為產生的可能性。但其他研究又表明讓釋放部分的侵略性沖動蒸汽事實上會導致今后更多的侵略性行為的產生。
認知方法。認知心理學家們認為人類的行為受以下因素影響：價值觀、解析自己處境的方式以及不同的選擇。例如，那些認為侵略性行為是必要的，并且認為戰(zhàn)爭時期侵略行為是正義的人，他們的好斗性可能更高，而認為某些戰(zhàn)爭或侵略行為是不公平的，并且認為侵略永遠是不正當?shù)娜�，他們遇事時不大可能會采取侵略性行為。
另一認知理論認為，惱人的、痛苦的事件會引起人們的不悅。隨即，這種不悅將導致但并非自動地導致侵略性行為，人們的認知因素會在其中起到干預作用。一個人是否采取出侵略性行動取決于以下因素，他們進行侵略性攻擊的經歷，對他人動機的解讀等。研究表明帶有侵略性的人經常曲解他人的意圖。例如，他們認為別人想傷害自己，而事實并非如此。
精神發(fā)泄：在精神動力學理論中被視為強烈情感或緊張的宣泄。
