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二、寫作技巧
一篇好的短文應該觀點明確,思路清晰,論述有力、準確,語言正確,文字簡潔、流暢、連貫,結構嚴謹。短文是由段落組成,因此寫好段落是寫好短文的關鍵。
段落的組成分為三部分,主題句(Topic Sentence),推展句(Development Sentences)和結論句(Concluding Sentence)。下面分別就這三方面進行詳解。
(一)主題句
1.主題句的作用
主題句是全段的核心句,讀者通過主題句能了解段落的中心思想。一個好的主題句還能限制話題所談論的范圍,表明段落展開的方向及方法。在英語文章中,圍繞主題句展開的段落很多。下面兩段摘自1995年的閱讀試題。
A job applicant has the responsibility for ascertaining certain types of information prior to the interview. First,the applicant should know what kind of job he wants and how that job relates to his career objective.It is important that the applicant be able to state his reasons for wishing to work for a particular company.Second,the applicant should seek as much information as possible concerning the company.Relevant information for the applicant to locate includes such items as the location of the home and regional offices,the financial status of the company,plans for expansion,and company philosophy.Information about most major corporations is available in reference books and periodicals.
上段第一句是段落的主題句,句子的大意是:申請工作的人在接受面試前有責任了解某些方面的信息。主題句中的關鍵詞是ascertaining certain types of information。緊接著,文章圍繞主題句從兩方面展開,論述了申請人應了解兩類信息。
If Europeans thought a drought was something that happened only in Africa,they know better now. After four years of below?normal rainfall (in some cases only 10 percent of the annual average), vast areas of France,Spain,Portugal,Belgium,Britain and Ireland are dry and barren .Water is so low in the canals of northern France that waterway traffic is forbidden except on weekends.Oyster growers in Britain report a 30 percent drop in production because of the loss of fresh water in local rivers necessary for oyster breeding.In southeastern England,the rolling green hills of Kent have turned so brown that officials have been weighing plans to pipe in water from wales.In Portugal,farmers in the southern Alentejo region have held prayer meetings for rain-so far,in vain.
上段中第二句是主題句,它點明了全段的中心思想,即:四年來,法國、西班牙、葡萄牙、比利時,英國及愛爾蘭的降雨量低于常年,這些國家的廣大地區(qū)都嚴重缺水。下面的各句都是圍繞這一主題展開的。
從上面兩段中我們可以看到英語的段落只能有一個中心思想,如要再論述其他與該段中心思想無關的內(nèi)容應另起一段!
2.主題句的位置
主題句的位置可以在段首:
London′s weather is very strange .It can rain several times a day;each time the rain may come suddenly after the sun is shining brightly.The air is damp(潮濕的)and chill(冷的)right through July.On one March afternoon on Hampton Heath last year it rained three times,there was one hail(冰雹)storm,and the sun shone brilliantly-all this within two hours′s time.It is not unusual to see men and women rushing down the street on a sunny morning with umbrellas on their arms.No one knows what the next few moments will bring.
主題句的位置可以在段落中間:
Just as I settle down to read or watch television,he demands that I play with him.If I get a telephone call,he screams in the background or knocks something over.I always have to hang up to find out what′s wrong with him, Baby?sitting with my little brother is no fun. He refuses to let me eat a snack(快餐)in peace.Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat.Then,when he finally grows tired,it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep.
主題句的位置可以在段尾:
Doctors are of the opinion that most people cannot live beyond 100 years,but a growing number of scientists believe that the aging process can be controlled.There are more than 12 000 Americans over 100 years old,and their numbers are increasing each year.Dr?James Langley of Chicago claims that,theoretically and under ideal(理想的)conditions,animals,including man,can live six times longer than their normal period of growth.A person′s period of growth lasts about 25 years.If Dr.Langley′s theory is accurate(準確的), future generations can expect a life span(壽命)of 150 years .
主題句的位置可在段首段尾同時出現(xiàn):
Good manners are important in all countries,but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country .Americans eat with knives and forks(叉);Japanese eat with chopsticks(筷子).Americans say"Hi"when they meet;Japanese bow.Many American men open doors for women;Japanese men do not.On the surface,it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan,and in a way this is true.But in any country,the only manners that are important are those involving one person′s behavior toward another person.In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country.
(以上4段摘自大學英語精讀課本)
主題句出現(xiàn)在段落首或尾完全由寫作需要而定。一般地說來,寫這樣100多詞的小短文把主題句放在段首更有利于考生扣準中心思想展開論述。
3.怎樣寫好主題句
主題句在段落中有著舉足輕重的作用。因此寫好主題句是寫好段落的關鍵。在構思主題句時要注意以下三個方面:
(1)主題句首先應是一個完整的句子,任何詞組或修飾成分都不能作主題句。如:More burdens,就不是一個完整的句子。Reading is thought to be a kind of conversation between the reader and the text,則是一個比較好的主題句。
(2)主題句不應太籠統(tǒng)概括。如:William Shakespeare is great這句話很籠統(tǒng),對段落如何展開沒有指導和限定作用,因而不能作主題句。如改為:William Shakespeare wrote several historic plays,則下文就能圍繞莎氏的歷史劇展開論述了。
(3)主題句不能太具體。如:The dictionary is small,句子如果太瑣碎具體就失去進一步展開的意義了。
(4)各段的主題句應相互照應。在以 No Smoking為題的作文中,各段的主題句分別是:
Smoking is harmful.
Smoking does not only harm the smokers but also people around them.
Therefore,smoking is a bad habit.
第二段的主題句用not only,but also連接詞語溝通了上下兩段的內(nèi)容。第三段的Therefore又起了承上啟下的作用,使全篇融為一體。
(二)段落的展開
展開段落的方法有很多種,在這里我們僅介紹幾種常用方法。
1.依據(jù)歸納法或演繹法進行論述
依據(jù)歸納法展開段落是指在段落中先引用具體事實或因由進行闡述或論說,進而得出結論。演繹法則是由一般推出特殊情況的結論。
下面這一段落是用歸納法展開的段落。最后一句是結論,也是主題句。
And that is exactly what reading a book should be:a conversation between you and the auther.Presumably,he knows more about the subject than you do;naturally,you will have the proper humility as you approach him.But don′t let anybody tell you that a reader is supposed to be solely on the receiving end.Understanding is a two?way operation;learning doesn′t consist in being an empty receptacle.The learner has to question himself and the teacher.He even has to argue with the teacher,once he understands what the teacher is saying.And marking a book is literally an expression of your differences,or agreements of opinion,with the author.
2.依據(jù)重要性展開段落
依據(jù)思想或事實或理由的重要性的先后次序進行論述,可以從次要至重要,也可以從重要至次重要。下面段落是以次重要至重要的方法進行論述的。作者首先指出(醫(yī)生)對病人撒謊不僅對醫(yī)生本人不好,也會傷害同事,進而會有損于整個醫(yī)療事業(yè)。
Lies also do harm to those who tell them:harm to their integrity and,in the long run,to their credibility.Lies hurt their colleagues as well.The suspicion of deceit undercuts the work of the many doctors who are scrupulously honest with their patiens;it contributes to the spiral of lawsuits and of "defen sive medicine",and thus it injures,in turn,the entire medical profession.
3.依據(jù)比較和對比法進行論述
一般地說,比較是指對事物的相同方面進行比較;對比是指對比事物的差異或不同方面。下面兩段就采用了對比方法。這兩段將口頭英語與書面英語的不同方面作了比較,兩段的觀點都一一對應,比如:Oral English is imformal while written English is comparatively formal就是一對觀點的對比。另外,兩段之間用unlike oral Englsh承接,既讓段落過渡自然,又使對比強烈。
First of all,oral English is usually considered informal.So no matter how poor one′s language is and how strange and foreign one′s pronunciation is,it seems insignificant if only one can make his audience understood.Secondly,as to the audience,they are only interested in grasping the meaning,not actually mind,or even hardly notice how many grammatical mistakes the speaker makes.Furthermore,oral English is also regarded adaptable.When we cannot express something precisely,we may give the explanation of it instead,or correct the mistakes on the spot.So oral English gives less chances of misunderstanding.
Unlike oral English,written English is comparatively formal.It requires good spelling and perfect grammar.Poor spelling and too many grammatical mistakes will put readers in a puzzling difficulty.They would be confused about what writers are getting at.In addition,once the words are printed on the paper and handed to whoever the person concerned,writers can no longer make any changes.To avoid this,one has to pay much attention to spelling,practise grammer and write clearly-constructed paragraphs.As a result it will take longer time and much more efforts to communicate in written English than in oral English.
4.依據(jù)時間的先后進行論述
依據(jù)時間的先后次序展開段落,就是完全按照事物實際發(fā)展的時間先后進行論述。如:下面兩段就是以時間為序介紹鹿的生長過程。隨著夏季一天天過去,又隨著秋去冬來,鹿的新陳代謝也隨著季節(jié)的推移而變化。
As the summer progresses and the fawns grow,they become less dependent on their mother′s milk and more dependent on growing plants as food sources.The adult males spend the summer growing antlers and getting fat.Both males and females continue to eat high quality food in the fall in order to deposit body fat for the winter.In the case of does and fawns,a great deal of energy is expended either in milk production or in growing,and fat is not accumulated as quickly as it is in full grown males.Fat reserves are like bank accounts to be drawn on in the winter when food supplies are limited and sometimes difficult to reach because of deep snow.
As fall turns into winter,other changes take place.Fawns lose their spotted coat.Hair on all the deer becomes darker and thicker.The change in the hair coats is usually complete by September and maximum hair depths are reached by November or December when winter becomes cold.
5.依據(jù)空間順序展開段落
依據(jù)空間的次序進行論述應是有序地由遠至近或由近至遠,由上至下或由下至上對事物進行描寫。下面的例子描寫了一幅美麗寧靜的夜景。作者先描寫空中的月亮,再隨灑向大地的月光寫到湖四周隨風搖曳的樹枝,又由青蛙的叫聲把讀者引到了湖的中央,最后結尾講:這是一個多么迷人的夜晚。這個段落文字簡潔流暢,有序地按空間順序由上寫到下,由外寫到里。讀者可在平時的練習中注意模仿。
It is a beautiful and quiet night.The moon is like a disc hanging on the dark sky,which casts its light on everything.Around the lake are some trees,their slender leaves billowing in the gentle wind.There must be some frogs in the middle of the lake,whose endless singing can be heard clearly.What an attractive night!
(三)寫好結尾句
段落結尾或文章的結尾的方法很多,比如在文章的結論段提出問題,讓讀者自己去解答;引用諺語或名人名言進一步印證作者的觀點;或?qū)⑶懊嫠v的內(nèi)容重點摘述等。在這里僅介紹幾種適合寫短文結尾的常用方法。
1.回答段落主題句中暗示的問題
如下面段落的第一句作為主題句闡明了做摘要的全過程顯示(一個人)的決策能力。在文章的結尾作者以答復的口氣作結論說:根據(jù)你在做筆記時所投入的時間和精力,你做摘要的效率會得到相應的提高。
The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions.You have to decide what the author′s plan is,how the material has been organized,what the key ideas are,and what material is used merely as example.You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions.But your efficiency in making summaries,as well as your general reading efficiency,will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your notetaking technique.
2.呼應主題句中的關鍵詞,使用關鍵詞的同義詞重申段落的中心思想
下面段落的第一句為主題句,其關鍵詞是famous。在結尾句中可使用它的同義詞well?known作結論。
Our university is one of the most famous universities in China.It is an old university whose origins can be traced back to 1938,when it was first built up in Yanan.Now,it is located in the northwest of Beijing.As a university of liberal arts,it has 25 departments,more than 50 majors,about 7 000 students and 4 000 teachers.It also plays a leading role in social science.In short,our university is well?known both at home and abroad.
3.將段落中所論述的內(nèi)容以摘要的方式進行總結
下面段落闡述了三方面的內(nèi)容:environment,goods和service,可以用連接詞not only…but also將三方面概括為一句作為結論句。
Walking into those luxury shopping centers,people will be fascinated by the beautiful decorations,graceful environment and elegant goods.There are various things for people to select:fashionable clothes,lovely stationery or precious jewelries.Besides people will be warmly greeted by salesmen and women who will offer a satisfactory service.In a word,such shopping centers provide not only pleasant environment,abundant goods but also excellent service.
4.以提問的方式結束段落
下面的段落講述吃早飯的重要性,結尾句作者設問:如果不吃早飯或湊合吃一口會怎么樣?這樣的結尾為下一段不吃早飯的危害作了鋪墊。
Many health experts consider breakfast to be the most important meal of the day.If we eat a good breakfast,we′ll have the energy and nutrients we need to begin our working day vigorously.It is especially true if one′s work involves mental activity.However,what happens if people skip breakfast or substitute a simple one for a high qualified meal?
5.使用過渡詞給文章或段落作結論
如:In brief,tourism,according to my opinion,should not be encouraged.這里in brief起總結作用。Certaily,close cooperation will make the world a better place.這里的certainly發(fā)揮了強調(diào)及過渡作用。
以上兩種方法簡單易學,注意在實踐中應用。
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